What happens when, in a particular tropical landscape, you combine human labor, introduced plants, and diverse societal histories and structures? You end up with anthropogenic or cultural landscapes – the “matrix” in current ecological jargon – such as the domesticated forests of Southeast Asia, the tree gardens of Caribbean or Pacific islands, the shambas of Africa, the rice terraces of Madagascar. Despite their aesthetic and cultural attractions, these smallholder farming landscapes are directly or implicitly critiqued by many – for not being as productive as modern industrial agriculture, for trapping people in rural poverty, and for taking up space at the expense of natural habitats.
